Please note: I am not a copyright lawyer. I've done research into copyright for years, and have had conversations with copyright lawyers, but the law is always changing - sometimes even too fast for those who live in that world. Please take everything you read here with a large grain of salt, and always err on the side of caution. If you see something in this post that has been inadvertently misrepresented, please let me know and I will gladly edit or remove it.

Copyright is the legal right granted to the creator of an original work, allowing them exclusive control over its use and distribution for a specified period of time. This right enables creators to benefit financially from their creations, fostering innovation and artistic expression. Copyright is just one form of intellectual property...other forms of include patents, trademarks, trade dress (the packaging and labeling of protected products, the layout of a particular restaurant), trade secrets (the formula of Coca-Cola, the KFC original recipe), industrial design rights, and plant breeder rights. 

For a work to be eligible for copyright protection, it must be "fixed in a tangible medium," meaning it must be recorded in some form, whether written, recorded, or otherwise captured. Importantly, copyright does not protect ideas, thoughts, or casual conversations - it only protects the expression of those ideas in a fixed form. Additionally, the work must be original and exhibit some level of creativity ( (in other words, you cannot copyright a work consisting of dry facts organized in a conventional way - this was tested in the courtroom when a phone company tried to copyright the phone book, and failed).

In the United States, the first law governing intellectual rights was the Copyright Act of 1790, the stated object of which was to secure for authors the "sole right and liberty of printing, reprinting, publishing and vending" the copies of their creations. Thus, the main function of the Copyright Act of 1790 was to encourage creativity and the development of a national art, music, and literature – all important things in a country that was a mere child on the international stage, and had very little of the above.

Ironically, the Act was copied almost verbatim from the "Statute of Anne," an English edict sometimes known as the Copyright Act of 1710, which is considered the world's first government-enforced protection for creators of content. The initial Act did not cover musical compositions. These were addressed in the Copyright Act of 1831, but until then, most musical compositions were registered as books.  

Until this law was passed, a creator of content had no legal recourse if someone stole their work. Any publisher or book seller - or anyone who owned a printing press - could simply run off copies of any book or sheet music they wanted, and make money from the creative efforts of others (denying those people an opportunity to benefit financially from their own creations).

The Copyright Act of 1790 granted copyright protection to maps, charts, and books for a period of 14 years, with the right to renew for one additional 14-year term…if the copyright holder was still alive at the end of the first term, for a total of 28 years.

The Copyright Act of 1831 revised that to 28 years plus an optional 14-year extension for a total of 42 years. The Copyright Act of 1909 revised that to 28 years plus an optional 28-year extension for a total of 56 years. The Copyright Act of 1976 revised that yet again, to “lifetime of the author plus 50 years.”

And finally, the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 (sometimes referred to as the Sonny Bono act, or more derisively, the "Mickey Mouse Protection Act) revised that to “lifetime of the author plus 70 years” for general copyright, or 95 years from publication/120 years from creation (whichever comes first) for works-for-hire.

One might well wonder why an author, composer, poet, or playwright would need a copyright of over 100 years, when the typical life expectancy of a human being is 74 years…the truth is, most of these copyright extensions were pursued not by individuals, but by corporations, some of which have lobbied hard to extend the law because their profits depend on keeping their “properties” under copyright. 

One company in particular has been lobbying for more and more copyright protection, including the possibility of a perpetual copyright that would never expire (which is ironic, since the bulk of their profits came from works that were in the Public Domain at the time)…you'll never guess who...

​After the period of copyright exclusivity ends, the work is supposed to enter into the Public Domain, where it now belongs to everyone, and is free for all to use. As of the writing of this blog post, any work created in 1928 or prior is considered to be in the public domain. Some examples of public domain works include:

Music in the public domain can be reproduced, copied, or arranged without worrying about having to pay royalties. It is an open resource for arrangements and ideas for new works.  Arranging anything based on the music of Classical or Romantic composers is fair game.  Even some really great works from the early 20th Century are considered to be in the public domain (though you should always double check). 

Be careful to use only the original public domain works if you want to arrange them or use them in some fashion. For example: Bizet's "Carmen" is in the public domain…but if you were to arrange the Yo Goto version of Carmen (for wind band), you would be infringing on the derivative rights of the arranger (Goto), even though the original work itself is public domain.

In the world of marching bands and show choirs (the two most frequent "abusers" of copyright), many directors purchase stock music arrangements because they are inexpensive (and incur no further licensing costs), though sometimes directors may wish for customized arrangements, which require a few extra steps…

If you want to use a copyrighted piece of music in your marching band show or indoor routine, then you need to secure permission via an arrangement license. Technically speaking, even adding new drum parts to an already existing marching band arrangement, or adding instruments to an a cappella choral work, would require an arrangement license. However, this is one of those grey areas that most rights holders seem to overlook or ignore.

Entities such as DCI, WGI, and BOA will check the status of your permissions when entering major regional competitions. Often, you must have not only permission to arrange, but also mechanical and synchronization permissions. State-sponsored organizations and contests are somewhat more lenient about checking to see if you have secured the proper copyrights…but more and more of them are beginning to check more rigorously to avoid culpability.

The process for requesting permission varies from publisher to publisher, with some taking as little as a minute to grant permission via an automated process, and some taking up to six months to grant (or deny) permission to arrange! Some services also have a pre-cleared list of tunes that are immediately licensed.

As a bit of a personal anecdote...a few decades ago I had a conversation with the composer Ron Nelson about his piece Rocky Point Holiday. Near the end of the conversation, I couldn't resist asking him about the drum corps "urban legend" that he had sued the Garfield Cadets for infringement in the early 1980s. While he played coy about the details, he did recount to me that he happened to be watching DCI Finals on PBS when he heard a "mashup" of Bernstein's Mass and his own Rocky Point Holiday. Since had never been asked permission to use the tune, he was annoyed, and let it be known through his lawyer.

He told me that from that point on, to discourage corps from using his music, he decided to charge an "exorbitant" fee (which I believe I remember was $1500 at the time...seems rather quaint today). He said that no one bothered him with an arrangement permission request until 1991, when the Blue Knights happily paid the fee for "Savannah River Holiday." He gave up on trying to restrict his music after that.

In any case, the result of not following proper procedure can result in a lawsuit against you personally, the ensemble or school you work for, or BOTH.  There are cases that have resulted in fines of thousands of dollars, and directors have lost their employment.

New music is the result of ensembles purchasing and performing published works and properly following copyright laws. If we want to see the continued development of great works, we must continue to respect the process.

“Fair Use” is by far one of the most misunderstood concepts involved in copyright. Fair use is determined using the following criteria:

• Purpose: Is the use for commercial or nonprofit educational purposes?
• Nature: What is the work that is being used?
• Substantiality: How much of the work is being used in relation to the whole? 
• Effect: What is the effect of the use on the market value of the work?

These criteria were intentionally left vague by Congress to allow for flexibility in the face of new technologies yet to come. But when ordinary users cannot determine whether a proposed use is fair, rights holders are able to assert that ANY use would constitute infringement, which is not how the law was intended to function.

According to Jason Mazzone, law professor at the University of Illinois, while the law intended to set a minimum amount of copying as fair use, many rights holders have decided to use this as a maximum fair use ceiling. The result of this is that fair use is being unfairly (and illegally) constrained instead of encouraged. The very vagueness in the law that allows for flexibility also leaves room for aggressive overreach on the part of corporations and publishers.

How often have you read the notice “Any photocopying of this publication is illegal” or “permission for duplication, for any purpose, must be secured from the copyright owner?” This is the publishing industry’s boilerplate attempt to limit ALL copying, fair or not. It is also not true, as the guidelines from Congress have laid out several instances where copying is allowed. If the Music Publishers Association’s position were the actual law, then there would be no such thing as Fair Use. The whole purpose of Fair Use is to be able to use works without obtaining permission beforehand.

As I said at the very start - I am not a lawyer. I've done my best to give accurate information, but none of the above should be considered legal advice. I may not be a lawyer, but I AM a music arranger...and if you are in need of custom music arrangements, public domain or otherwise, I am always happy to put my skills to use.

A few weeks ago, I was invited to share my insights on arranging music for marching bands with a Marching Band Techniques class at Western Illinois University. Reflecting on the evolution in my style over the past 25 years, I decided to summarize my presentation into a blog post, figuring that it might be of interest to others, so...here's a bit of a deep dive into the art - and science - of arranging music for marching bands.

The specific example I used in my lecture was my arrangement of the Smashing Pumpkins' 1996 hit, "Tonight, Tonight." It's a song I've always enjoyed, making the arrangement process a pleasure rather than a chore. Arranging music you like can significantly enhance your work quality and enjoyment. Even though I take on all kinds of projects, there's a special joy in working on tunes you can listen to repeatedly.

If you don't know the tune, take a moment to listen to it - you may find that you've heard it before, though you may not have known its name or who performed it:

THE FOUNDATION: LISTENING and TRANSCRIBING
When arranging, especially without a provided score or lead sheet, the process begins by listening to the original tune multiple times to capture the correct melody, rhythms, and harmonies. From teaching courses on orchestration for years, I'm well aware that MIDI versions of many pop and rock songs can be found online, and that many student arrangers are drawn to using these because it cuts down on the amount of work.

Unfortunately, this also robs students of an opportunity to use their ears critically, an invaluable skill in arranging. I myself prefer working from a reliable score/lead sheet or directly transcribing by ear to avoid inaccuracies - too often I've seen MIDI files that have contained numerous errors in rhythm, harmony, and sometimes even the melody itself!

For tricky sections, especially in faster music, I will sometimes use software like Amazing Slowdowner, which allows me to slow down the music without altering the pitch. This helps in catching any complex rhythms or pitches I might miss at full speed. Sometimes, I'll also adjust the pitch to better fit the desired key for the arrangement.

After thoroughly familiarizing myself with the tune, I begin inputting the melody into Finale, sometimes using the piano* for help with complex passages or harmonies. I then create a 5-line sketch of the arrangement. This sketch helps streamline the structure (see below), especially when dealing with longer songs that need to be condensed into a 1:30 to 2:00 marching band arrangement.

*I recently had to use the piano for an arrangement of a fun-but-silly tune by Thank You Scientist, which had very complex and rapid passages in the middle section. Here is how that one turned out, in case you're curious. 

SELECTING YOUR STRUCTURE
One of the trickiest parts of arranging pop or rock music for marching bands is deciding which sections to cut. Pop and rock songs are famous for their catchy repeated verses, choruses, and hooks, but that repetition doesn't translate well to marching band performances, especially when the original song is longer than two minutes.

Here is where my own biases come into play: While I have certainly enjoyed arrangements that present a very different "take" on the music being arranged, when it comes to rock and pop music, my preference is to stay as faithful to the original as I can. These types of arrangements are typically not used in competitive marching band shows (although there are plenty of examples of successful uses of pop/rock music in BOA-type shows), but are most often presented by bands seeking to entertain a football crowd on Friday nights.

A conversation I once had with a well-meaning (but somewhat blunt) football dad convinced me that arrangers sometimes outthink themselves when it comes to arranging pop and rock music. Most of the time, the audience simply wants to be able to recognise the song being performed. My high school band was performing an arrangement that took various wild liberties with the music. It was not well-received by the 99% football crowd. I guess the previous two paragraphs can be summarized by saying: Know your audience. 

Typically, I approach the topic of song structure by first identifying each section. I try to always use the song's intro, especially if it's short and impactful. Repeated verses are usually presented just once, or at most twice if the song's structure really demands it. Choruses are included once or twice, but other song structures like breaks or interludes (think of those classic 1980s guitar solos) are often left out, though they can sometimes be used to great effect if you have a wind soloist that is capable, or even a guitar or keyboard player in the pit. Refrains and bridges are used on a case-by-case basis. Remember, most marching band arrangements need to fit within a 1:30 to 2:00 timeframe, so significant editing will often be necessary, especially for longer songs like "Tonight, Tonight."

To create a cohesive arrangement, I start with a 5-line sketch that includes the song's intro, a verse or two, a chorus or two, and a coda or ending. This process can be challenging, especially with 1980s music where many songs end with fades that don't work in a marching band context. My sketches typically contain two treble clef lines, two bass clef lines, and a basic drumset part. This helps me think about the rhythmic elements and how to incorporate drum parts later on.

Here is a glimpse into my initial sketch for "Tonight, Tonight":

As you can see/hear, I ended up cutting out a few of the more repetitive sections, though I knew right away I wanted to use that arpeggiated guitar lick that starts at 0:38 in the original...but how best to do it? And for that matter, how can we get the majestic full sound of the introduction, while also musically portraying the softer verses? This is where orchestration enters the picture. 

THE ART OF ORCHESTRATION
Orchestration is crucial for a compelling arrangement. Understanding what each instrument can and cannot do, and where they sound best, is essential. Early in my career, much of this was trial and error for me, but now I rely on a solid grasp of instrument capabilities. This was not always the case...I still keep a handful of arrangements I did early in my career that I keep as a reminder to myself of how much I've learned (one chart in particular had 3 different flute parts, 3 different clarinet parts, 3 alto sax parts, 2 tenor sax parts, 3 mellophone parts, and also featured intricate rhythms that would be near impossible to clean for use on a marching field).

Since then, I've found more success employing the "less-is-more" philosophy of instrumentation. Unless you've got a huge, huge band with tons of woodwinds, it doesn't make a lot of sense to split parts that much. Most music you arrange is going to have only 4-6 different things happening at once  (unless of course you are arranging Rite of Spring). 

Here’s a typical breakdown I use for marching band instrumentation:

• Flute/Piccolo
• Clarinet (sometimes split into two parts)
• Alto Sax (sometimes split into two parts)
• Tenor Sax
• Trumpet 1-2-3
• Mellophone (sometimes split into two parts)
• Trombone 1-2
• Baritone
• Sousaphone
• Cymbals
• Snares
• Tenors
• Basses
• Drumset
• Sideline (Pit) Percussion

Successful combinations include Alto Saxes with Mellophones, Tenor Saxes with Trombones, Tenor Saxes with Baritones, Trumpets and Flutes/Piccolos, Trumpets and Alto Saxes, Clarinets and Mellophones, Clarinets and Baritones, and many more, depending on the colour you want from the group. Each combination needs careful consideration of their roles and dynamics to ensure a balanced sound.

One way you can learn about this is by studying other arrangers' work. From the great Tom Wallace (you've no doubt played some of his charts...he is also the staff arranger for the University of Georgia Redcoat Marching Band) I learned to use the trombones/baritones as a harmonic foundation. His arrangements feature lush, 3- and 4-part harmony using the low brass that is just hard to beat. From Jay Bocook I learned how to use the woodwinds in a way that will ensure they are heard. From Jay Dawson I learned how to add to a melody so that the end result is that the melody is heard more prominently...even when you haven't changed anything about it by itself. And from myriad great arrangers out there, I learned about using middle voices for acrobatic countermelodies. 

If you're not familiar with instrument ranges and tessituras, I highly suggest taking an orchestration or instrumentation course (if you're still in college), or picking up a book on those topics. For me, discovering Kennan's/Grantham's "The Technique of Orchestration" in college was a game-changer. I read it cover-to-cover, and it helped me truly understand the ranges of the instruments, where they sound great, how best to combine them, etc. Definitely worth picking up (especially if you can find an earlier edition that doesn't cost as much as the later ones).

Using notation software (Finale, in my case), I set up a template that includes the layout I prefer, my preferred fonts, my preferred expressions and articulations, and the correct playback sounds for each instrument (I use NotePerformer for my wind instrument sounds, and Virtual Drumline for the percussion sounds). The template allows me to work quickly during the summer months, when I might have a slew of music to arrange...not having to start from scratch with every project is a time-saver.

There were tweaks after I completed it, to be sure. One of the healthier habits I've gotten into is to set aside a finished arrangement for at least 24 hours, so I can come back to it with fresh eyes and ears. Doing this has saved me from making silly mistakes, and more than a few times has also allowed a new orchestrational idea to percolate during my down time, helping me to improve the arrangement.  I highly recommend this strategy to anyone who is writing any sort of arrangement. 

Since I've given you examples of my process and used the actual Finale playback for them, a note of caution about these types of playback files: Notation programs play back everything with mechanical precision. They will "overcome" your mistakes - for example, if you write a flute part in the bottom part of the staff and expect to hear it on the field, you better have them amplified, or have no one else playing (even then, you may not hear them!) However, a notation program will play it back and it will be audible, fooling you into thinking that all is well. This is where your "inner ear" becomes indispensable.

FINAL THOUGHTS
​Arranging music for marching bands combines technical skills with creative artistry. Whether you're cutting sections to fit time constraints or carefully choosing instrument combinations, each step requires attention to detail and a deep understanding of both the music and the ensemble. By embracing these principles and continually honing your skills, you can create engaging and memorable marching band arrangements.

Got a specific question? Feel free to comment below, and I'll do my best to check in and answer. Remember, the ultimate goal is to bring the music to life in a way that resonates with both the performers and the audience. Happy arranging!

- - - 
​
If you are interested in purchasing the arrangement discussed in this post, or any other arrangement, please visit this page.

If you are in need of a custom arrangement, I am happy to help there too! Contact me for details. 

INTRODUCTION
Playing with good intonation in an ensemble setting is a performance skill. It must be practiced diligently, just as you would practice scales, sight-reading, multiple tonguing, etc. Unfortunately, few of us practice “being in tune,” either because of an ignorance of its importance, or because of confusion on how best to proceed. The result is that over the course of a typical rehearsal, numerous unison lines remain out of tune, chords do not “ring true,” and performers do not get the best possible sound out of their instruments. ​

Basic Playing Procedures

• Poor playing posture and/or hand or finger position;
• Poor embouchure formation;
• Insufficient air support - cold, fast air is required to set the air column vibrating…always use a focused, fast stream of air, even when playing softly (ESPECIALLY when playing softly!)

​
Not Playing in the Standard Tuning Frequency

• Wind instruments are manufactured to play in tune with the main tuning mechanism pulled part way out, allowing you to make minor adjustments;
• No instrument’s main tuning slide should ever be pushed all the way in, or pulled all the way out...if that is the only way for you to be in tune, it is indicative of a wider problem;
• The standard tuning frequency is 440Hz or cycles per second, which corresponds to our Concert A. Another frequently used tuning frequency is 442Hz. Deficient intonation may occur if you are tuning wind instruments to any other frequency.

Insufficient Warm-up Time

• Modern-day wind instruments are constructed to play in tune at an external temperature of 72 degrees Fahrenheit, at sea level, after a proper warm-up;
• Because the temperature of human breath is around 98.6, the breath gradually raises the temperature of the air inside a cold instrument, thus raising its pitch;
• Sound travels faster in warm air than in cold, because the air molecules are less densely packed together. This is the physical reason why wind instruments will sound flat when cold, and sharp when hot;
• Metal instruments warm up and cool down faster than instruments made of wood or plastic (flutes are the exception, as flutes do not tend to get much warmer because the performer is breathing across the mouth hole, not into the instrument itself, as with brass instruments); 
• Large instruments, such as the tuba, take longer to warm up than smaller instruments. For this reason, all wind players should warm up on their own at least five to ten minutes before tuning (chorales are great for this purpose in ensemble settings);
• During long rest passages, the internal instrument of your instrument can be maintained by softly and slowly blowing warm air through it. Flutes can keep their instrument warm by holding it close to the body or keeping hands on the instrument;
• Always be alert for environmental factors that may affect tuning (for example, a too-cold room, a warm, humid environment, heat from stage lights, etc.)

Psychological/Musical Phenomena

• While sound is a physical phenomenon (in the form of vibration), the interpretation of that sound by our brains is a completely psychological one, and is therefore subjective and can be manipulated in several ways;
• Octaves can often sound “stretched” to our ears: the higher octave will sometimes sound sharp, the lower octave will often sound flat. Both ends of the octave should always listen inward;
• Low tones played loudly tend to sound flat, while high tones played loudly tend to sound sharp;
• In general, humans tend to be more tolerant of sharpness than flatness in the middle and upper registers, and more tolerant of flatness than sharpness in the lower ranges.
• Playing with a tuner on your stand can be detrimental to the development of listening skills. Tuners should only be used to tune your overall instrument, not to attempt tuning every single note you play (especially when you are part of a chord). 

Pitch Tendencies of Instruments and Performers

• Generally speaking, inexperienced wind players tend to play high notes sharp (pinching and tension) and low notes flat (not enough air support);
• Brass players and flautists tend to go sharp in crescendo, while clarinetists and saxophonists tend to go flat (the reverse is true in decrescendo);
• Regardless of quality or brand, every instrument has certain notes that are inherently out of tune with the equal tempered scale. Finding these troublesome notes and working out a solution to the problem should be paramount to all conscientious wind players…for this reason, it is highly suggested that you create a tuning tendency chart for yourself once a year, or anytime you get a new instrument, mouthpiece, etc.;
• Most performers will continue to grow sharp the longer they play, until a point of fatigue is reached at which point the instrument will begin to grow flat due to embouchure issues. Be aware of this tendency and compensate!

THE TUNING PROCESS
With the exception of oboes and bassoons, wind instruments are manufactured to play sharp when the headpiece, tuning joints, or slides are closed/pushed in. Therefore, players must lengthen their instrument by pulling out the main tuning mechanism, whatever it is for that instrument. When tuning in an ensemble setting, the following basic procedures should be followed by all wind players:

• Warm up thoroughly before tuning to make sure your instrument is at equilibrium temperature with the environment.
• Tune to a reliable frequency, and use the basic tuning notes recommended for your instrument (usually F for brass instruments and clarinets, A for most other woodwind instruments). Please note that while B-flat is an ok tuning note, it does induce a small element of strain in brass players, and F is a better tuning note (which also allows the clarinet to tune its barrel joint). 
• Tune at a mezzo-forte dynamic level, and do not use vibrato. 
• Humming the tuning note softly to yourself allows you to focus and internalize the pitch much better than simply “attacking” the note.
• Do not try to “humour” the tuning note…play it straight. Adjust the main tuning mechanism if your instrument is flat or sharp, do not “lip” the note into place.
• Adjusting the tuning note with your embouchure (“lipping”) does not mean you are in tune…it just means you have fixed that one single pitch, and that you will have to keep fixing it every time you come back to it! 
• The first effort you make while tuning should be to find out how far out of tune you are, and then make the length adjustment. The second effort should be to fine-tune any minor deficiencies, and the third effort should be to verify. A good player can do all of this in a few seconds. 
• In addition to tuning the main tube length of the instrument, brass players should tune the length of each individual valve in relationship to the overall length. Neglecting to do so may cause intonation deficiencies with individual fingering combinations.
• Softly re-articulate the tuning note from time to time at random. This will allow you to “get back in touch” with your own sound, which may have become blended into the overall sound of the ensemble (which is a good thing!)
• As soon as you’ve tuned – stop playing. The tuning process is not intended to be a long one. Ideally, you will already be close enough when the tuning note is sounded that it should not take you very long to ascertain where you are in relation to it.
• Use your tuning slides to fix the overall intonation on your instrument, and use your embouchure only for correcting small deficiencies on the go. Players should practice lowering and raising pitches using this physical technique without grossly distorting the tone quality or dynamic level.

THE HARMONIC SERIES
The Harmonic Series is a naturally occurring (i.e., not man-made) acoustic and mathematical phenomenon that is the underlying foundation for the construction of sound on string, woodwind, and brass instruments. The series consists of frequencies (pitches) that are related to each other via whole number ratios of the lowest possible frequency, which is known as the fundamental. 

For example, if the fundamental was 10Hz, then 20Hz (2xF), 30Hz (3xF), 50Hz (5xF), and 100 Hz (10xF), would allbe harmonic frequencies of the fundamental. 55 Hz would not be a part of the harmonic series, because it is not a whole number ratio to the fundamental (5.5xF). 55Hz would, however, be a part of the harmonic series if  the fundamental were 11Hz.

These frequencies, known as harmonics, are possible because of complex vibrations. All freely vibrating bodies (such as a piano string or an air column) vibrate not just along their entire length, but also in halves, thirds, fourths, etc., theoretically onward into infinity. The smaller each segment of string (or air column) vibrates, the higher the frequency (pitch) produced above its fundamental, hence the name we often use synonymously with harmonics: overtones.

Many of these overtones are inaudible to the human ear (just as many of the secondary vibrations are invisible to the eye). The lower the note played, the more obvious the overtones to our ears. This is why low notes on the piano, for example, tend to have such a vibrant and rich quality (try it out next time you are in a practice room...strike the lowest keys on the piano and strive to listen for the audible harmonics, particularly the fifth and the third of the fundamental).

As we progress up the Harmonic Series, the intervals between overtones get smaller and smaller (and some are not even intervals that we use in Western music). Any sound we hear contains all the notes in its harmonic series to varying degrees. That variability is the reason that instruments playing the same pitch sound different: Their harmonics have different strengths. For example, an oboe playing A440 has a rich, reedy, spicy sound, while a clarinet playing the same note has a much less vibrant tone, simply because the clarinet’s construction suppresses some of the overtones (the 2nd, 4th, and 6th especially) that would make it stand out more.

No matter how many overtones are present and audible, our ears tend to resolve all harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving all of the individual harmonics of a musical tone, we perceive them together as one pitch (the lowest one, or fundamental). Incredibly, this will happen if we hear just a few tones from the harmonic series…even if the fundamental is not actually sounding! This phenomenon is used in music recording, especially in low bass tones that are to be reproduced on small speakers such as earbuds or other headphones, and it fools your brain completely into thinking that the lowest tone is there, when in fact it is not.

 Yet another name often applied to the phenomenon of the harmonic series is partials. This is especially the case when speaking of the harmonic series in relation to brass instruments. For all intents and purposes, the terms harmonics, overtones, and partials are all interchangeable in this document. For brass players, these partials are particularly important, as they are the foundation to playing chromatically. Here are the first sixteen partials of the harmonic series (keep in mind that these partials go on, theoretically, into infinity):

• Partial 1 is the Fundamental (in brass instruments, often called pedal tones).
• Partial 2 is one octave above the Fundamental.
• Partial 3 is a Perfect Fifth above Partial 2.
• Partial 4 is a Perfect Fourth above Partial 3.
• Partial 5 is a Major Third above Partial 4.
• Partial 6 is a minor Third above Partial 5.
• Partial 7 is a minor Third above Partial 6.
• Partial 8 is a Major Second above Partial 7.
• Partial 9 is a Major Second above Partial 8.
• Partial 10 is a Major Second above Partial 9.
• Partial 11 is a Major Second above Partial 10.
• Partial 12 is a minor Second above Partial 11.

• Partial 13 is a Major Second above Partial 12.
• Partial 14 is a Minor Second above Partial 13.
• Partial 15 is a Minor Second above Partial 14.
• Partial 16 is a Minor Second above Partial 15.

If you were paying attention, you may have noticed that the first six partials of the harmonic series make up a Major Chord. In fact, many historians and theoreticians believe that the reason our harmony tends to be so heavily reliant on fifths, fourths, and thirds (i.e., major and minor chords) is because those are the most audible harmonics to the human ear. (This does not, however, explain why Asian and Arabic cultures use different harmonic models since they too would be able to hear the same harmonics as Western Europeans during the development of music).

Here are some other tips/tricks that will help you learn harmonics/partials:

• Partials 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 are the Fundamental and its octaves. If the fundamental is B-flat, then the 2nd, 4th, 8th, and 16th, partials are also B-flat (and so is the 32nd, 64th, etc.)
• Partials 3, 6, and 12 are perfect fifths above the Fundamental (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 3rd, 6th, and 12th partial are F naturals (as are the 24th, 48th, etc.) – Note, the 3rd partial series is noticeably sharp on wind instruments.
• Partials 5 and 10 are Major thirds (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 5th and 10th partials are D naturals. So are the 20th, 40th, and 80th partials... Note- the 5th partial series is noticeably flat on wind instruments.
• Partial 7 is a minor seventh (plus octaves) above the fundamental. If the fundamental is B-flat, the 7th partial is an A-flat, and so is the 28th, 56th, etc. Note- the 7th partial series is extremely flat on wind instruments.
• 9 is a Major ninth (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 9th partial is a C, and so is the 18th, 36th, etc.
• Partial 11 is seldom used due to intonation deficiencies on most instruments. However, just for the sake of knowing it, it is a tri-tone plus an octave.
• If you “divide” a partial by two until it will no longer divide evenly, then you will really only have to learn Partials # 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.

So why is any of this important to you? Well, knowledge of the harmonic series is how fingerings on brass, woodwind, and stringed instruments are derived. This knowledge could help you devise alternate fingerings for a troublesome spot, or decide a different way to voice a chord so that it sounds better in tune. But really, it is important to know because it is what music is all about, and knowledge for the sake of knowledge is still important. Knowing what we know now, we can see that the pitch “G,” for example, can be:

• The 1st, 2nd, 4th, or 8th partial of the G series...
• The 3rd, 6th, or 12th partial of the C series...
• The 5th or 10th partial of the E-flat series...
• The 7th partial of the A series...
• The 9th partial of the F series...
• The 11th partial of the C-sharp series...

= = =

“Every bit of playing we do today, be it good, bad, or indifferent, goes toward deciding what sort of player we will be tomorrow. A player who begins his day with a load of thoughtless, shoddy flourishes is simply perfecting their faults. Time spent trying to do simple things well is like putting money in the bank. Use your warmup time to do simple things well.”
– John Fletcher
​

​PERFORMANCE ETIQUETTE
Always double check performance times, locations, and dress code. Plan to arrive early enough to warm up, and always give yourself extra time in case of traffic or other minor emergencies. If you are not familiar with the performance venue, plan to arrive significantly earlier in case you get lost or have trouble finding the location, an entrance, a working elevator, etc.

Adhere to the stated dress code for the performance. Appearance goes a long way toward defining your image as a professional. All apparel should be of a formal rather than casual nature unless “casual” is specifically called for. Jewelry should be understated and minimal, watches should not be worn. If you do not already own decent-quality performance wear, invest in some. 

Make sure your mobile device has been left backstage, and that you have turned it off or have it set to “Airplane Mode” . . . many a performance has been marred by a cell phone ringing backstage. Keep the rest of your non-musical accessories in your case, purse, or bag, not on your stand or on the floor by your feet, where they can be knocked over, or otherwise make unnecessary clutter.

As soon as you enter the stage, you are on display and in professional performance mode. Now is not the time to start playing high notes or fortissimo orchestral excerpts (especially if they are not on the concert that night). Do not practice your tough licks on stage over and over again right before the concert begins – you will just make yourself tense and fatigue your chops. Whenever possible, use practice mutes or buzz on your mouthpiece (within reason). Sometimes, a little mental run-through or a moment of meditation to acclimate to the stage is all that is needed.

Do not turn a page during silence, unless absolutely necessary. If you must, lift the corner of the page so that it does not scrape against the stand. Also avoid nervous repetitive actions: Looking at a reed, adjusting your seat/stand, instrument adjustments, fixing your hair, or other actions that draw attention to yourself. The audience notices these types of actions.

At the end of a piece, savor and take in the moment. Don’t be a gunslinger, eager to holster your weapon…take in the applause as a respectful acknowledgment of the audience. Do not immediately start fidgeting with the music, your instrument, or your stand. If the conductor is bowing, stay still but look at the audience in a way that makes it clear that you have enjoyed performing for them. If the conductor asks you to stand, do it quickly and turn your body towards the audience. Smile! Have a pleasant look on your face, no matter how the performance went.

As the conductor leaves the stage, quickly (but not too quickly), exchange your music for the next piece. If you are moving to a new position, do so gently. There is plenty of time to maneuver yourself, your instrument, and your music into place. The conductor will wait a reasonable interval.

Be aware of - and sensitive to - other ensemble members’ line-of-sight to the conductor, especially if the performance venue is different than your usual rehearsal venue. Do your best to be accommodating. As with notes and rhythms, be direct and friendly if you yourself need an accommodation.

Count the rests! If you have many bars of tacet, give a small hand or finger signal at all the important rehearsal letters, double bars, or the cues immediately before your next entrance. This allows all the players in the section to ensure they have the correct count. If you are not sure of the count, do not make a signal. With everyone counting carefully, no section should ever get lost. Please do not make your signals visible to an audience or even other sections, who may have different counts than you. And certainly don’t engage in games of one-upmanship in order to purposely confuse other musicians and their counts…this needlessly endangers the integrity of the music.

Every time you are in public, an impression is being crafted, whether for the good or for the bad. This applies both to the music you play and to the statements you make to your colleagues. Do not start complaining about anything until you have left the building. Even then, make sure you know your audience and that what you say will not offend them or someone they respect. More importantly, keep in mind that the things you say out loud (or via social media, email, etc.) can often be traced back to you.  

Before you ever open your mouth (or log into your social media account) to criticize someone, think to yourself “...and then what?” If nothing good can come from your complaint, it is most wisely kept to yourself. Always keep the following checklist in mind before you say anything about another person, especially a colleague, peer, or supervisor: Is it kind? Is it true? Is it necessary?

Finally – professionals not only demonstrate the above traits, but also expect and demand them from their peers and colleagues. Professionals understand that life is a series of “teachable” moments. How one approaches these moments will make a world of difference: Being rude or condescending in your demands for professionalism will accomplish nothing but resentment and anger. Expecting someone to know how to behave professionally without clear and concise explanations of why that is the desired standard will result in disappointment. If you can learn to clearly articulate the need for professionalism in an ensemble setting, it will be easier to educate those around you. We should always be striving to leave the world in a better state that we found it.

= = =

“Professionalism in Art has this difficulty: To be professional is to be dependable; to be dependable is to be predictable…and predictability is esthetically boring,  an anti-virtue in a field where we hope to be astonished and startled and at some deep level refreshed.”
– John Updike

Today, I realise how silly it must sound to others to be captivated by a work's title alone, without ever having heard the actual music. To my high school-aged self, however, these titles were compelling. Also compelling was the look of the engraving (even back then, I marveled at how different the layout could be from one publisher to another), the feel of the music, and most of all, the smell of it (particularly those very old Hindsley transcriptions that seem to make it into most older libraries). At one point, I had just about the entire FBA (Florida Bandmasters Association) Concert Music List memorized - something my former band director Neil Jenkins (a man who would later become my colleague, when I returned to teach at my alma mater) could attest to. Never mind the fact that I could not have hummed a single melody for most of these works.

Of course, as I progressed through my undergraduate degree at Florida State University, I was exposed to much of the music I had previously only known by title, thanks to Jim Croft, Pat Dunnigan, and Bentley Shellahamer, and the various ensembles they conducted. It was then that it began to dawn on me that a captivating title did not necessarily make for a captivating work...only the compositional craft of the composer could do that. I was no longer enthralled by a work's title alone...I now needed more for a piece of wind band music to stand out. I suppose it was one of the many lessons I learned along the way to becoming a wind band conductor.

When I returned to my alma mater to teach some years later, I took on the responsibility of going through the band library to re-organize it and catalog it, so that we would better know what we had, where it was, and how to access it quickly. It took me the better part of an academic year (we had quite a nice collection), and it prepared me for later re-organizations - especially the one I am going through right now. This being a blog about wind band music and its related aspects, I thought it made sense to discuss the place where we store the most important element that helps our wind bands "go," indeed, our life's blood, and our curriculum: The music itself.

In my experience, most band libraries (whether at the secondary or tertiary levels) look like one of these two pictures:

Perhaps one of these setups looks familiar to you? 

Mind you, I'm not here to "throw shade" at anyone who uses either system. After all, money is hard to come by in most programs, and the budget is better spent on instruments and new music, rather than new methods of storage. Time is also a limited resource for band directors, and that time is better spent teaching lessons, running rehearsals, and a myriad other responsibilities. Who has time to re-organize an entire band library? Well...YOU do.

Not all by yourself, of course, unless you've got a very small library. In my current re-organization, I have student volunteers from time to time, and I also use one hour of library time as a make-up assignment for excused absences in my ensembles. We have roughly 1200 works in our library, and though I started this project at the beginning of the spring, I am only up through 250 right now. It is a long process, but the benefits outweigh the drawbacks. 

By sorting, re-organizing, and re-cataloguing the library, I am able to do several things, all of which I feel are important (and some of which may be appealing to you as well):

• I am able to figure out which pieces of music are missing (and in some cases have been missing for many years)...I can now either remove them from the database, purchase replacements, or try to find out who they were loaned to. 
• I am able to find duplicate sets. In some cases, someone in the past purchased a new set without awareness that we already owned one. These duplicate sets can be sold (always check with your administration and GET PERMISSION to do so first), or given away, or simply incorporated into one large set.
• I am able to figure out which sets are missing scores, or an oboe part, or a tuba part, etc. This saves me frustration later when selecting music for a program, only to discover that I am missing all the horns and cannot perform the work.
• I am able to use software (I use FileMaker Pro) to keep track of performances, who the music is checked out to, difficulty level, and can even keep information for future performances, like program notes.

The following is what a typical entry in my FileMaker Pro database looks like as of 2023 (note: this software is HIGHLY customizable, hence my specific tabs...you may find similar software useful, or even just use Microsoft Excel).

As you can see, I am able to keep track of a great variety of information. When I am finished, I will also be able to see when a piece of music was last performed, what parts are missing, publisher information (in case I need to order more parts or a score), and much more. The keywords I enter now will allow me to program a concert around a theme, if so desired. Program notes can also be stored here for the next time a work is performed (or even in anticipation, if you find notes for the work on the WRP).

FileMaker Pro will also print out a numbered list, as well as a list by title, and by composer...really, any type of list you feel would be helpful as a hard copy. We keep this hard copy list in the library itself, so that someone can simply browse the list instead of having to go directly into the software (and we have a student librarian who will then "check out" the piece to the corresponding faculty member).

For me, this re-cataloguing is only one part of the process, however...and here is where I will reveal my deep loathing of those ubiquitous white music storage boxes. Again, I am not criticizing those of you who prefer them; we all have valid reasons for our preferences. But, they just do not work for me, for a variety of reasons that I feel merit some thought:

• A lot of wind band music will not fit correctly in the boxes (which can cause damage to the music). I almost wept when I opened up a box to find the very large parts for Strauss' Suite in B-flat, Op. 4, folded in half to fit into one of these boxes. Oh, the humanity!
• The boxes are all one size, and fairly inflexible. You can easily end up with a box that is overflowing or packed to the gills with music, while the box next to it is barely full because the set is so small:

​So...now that I am done complaining...you may be asking, "what do YOU use, then?" Well, what I like is a system of filing cabinets (ubiquitous at most academic institutions) with top-loading folders (for easy access). As far as I am aware, only one company is currently making the large top-loading folders (please let me know if there are others), while most other companies make side-loading folders (which are not great in file cabinets - top-loading allows you to easily take a look at the music, side-loading means that you'd have to take the entire folder out, which adds to the wear-and-tear). These particular folders are pretty sturdy, they are not just cheap paper, but rather something more akin to card stock (though not as thick). I highly recommend them.

I then print out labels for each work (this can be automated in FileMaker or Excel, by the way), using Shipping Labels (Avery 5163), and the result is a much neater, much more accessible way of storing music. It also ends up taking less space than the boxes, so if space is at a premium for you, you may want to investigate. What if a score is too large for the envelope? No worries - I print out a little reminder to myself (or whoever might be looking for it) that the score is being kept in the OVERSIZE area (I also put a note in the database).

Incidentally, if you are interested in a blank copy of the FileMaker Pro file that I use (which you can then format and customize as you see fit), please contact me and I'll be happy to send one along.

Probably the best "side-effect" of a library re-organization is the discovery of works and composers I was not previously aware of. It really gives one a sense of how much music was being churned out by myriad composers that did not stand the test of time. Names like Joseph Olivadotti, Harold Walters (he of Instant Concert fame), George Thaddeus Jones, and Carl Frangkiser are ever-present...it wasn't all Persichetti, Holst, Dello Joio, or Grainger back then. Also, Frank Erickson wrote approximately one billion pieces for wind band, though only the 2-3 we know today have survived the filter of time. Publishers like Bourne and Belwin and Robbins and Rubank seemed to dominate publishing in the 40s and 50s, though familiar names such as Boosey & Hawkes and Carl Fischer were active back then as well. Also interesting are the wind band conventions from the infancy of our genre, such as condensed scores, D-flat piccolos, E-flat horns, and the stubborn practice of calling an E-flat Contra Alto Clarinet an "E-flat ContraBASS Clarinet."

The moral of the story is - if your library is in need of an extreme makeover, you'll find that you'll learn quite a bit about long-term trends in the wind band world in addition to tidying up and making your operation run smoother. You will come to better understand the ephemeral nature of musical trends and the cyclical nature of our craft. 

And you just might find that missing Bassoon 1 part for the Persichetti Symphony buried in the parts for the Gould Symphony  (and there was much rejoicing)!