INTRODUCTION
Playing with good intonation in an ensemble setting is a performance skill. It must be practiced diligently, just as you would practice scales, sight-reading, multiple tonguing, etc. Unfortunately, few of us practice “being in tune,” either because of an ignorance of its importance, or because of confusion on how best to proceed. The result is that over the course of a typical rehearsal, numerous unison lines remain out of tune, chords do not “ring true,” and performers do not get the best possible sound out of their instruments. ​

Basic Playing Procedures

• Poor playing posture and/or hand or finger position;
• Poor embouchure formation;
• Insufficient air support - cold, fast air is required to set the air column vibrating…always use a focused, fast stream of air, even when playing softly (ESPECIALLY when playing softly!)

​
Not Playing in the Standard Tuning Frequency

• Wind instruments are manufactured to play in tune with the main tuning mechanism pulled part way out, allowing you to make minor adjustments;
• No instrument’s main tuning slide should ever be pushed all the way in, or pulled all the way out...if that is the only way for you to be in tune, it is indicative of a wider problem;
• The standard tuning frequency is 440Hz or cycles per second, which corresponds to our Concert A. Another frequently used tuning frequency is 442Hz. Deficient intonation may occur if you are tuning wind instruments to any other frequency.

Insufficient Warm-up Time

• Modern-day wind instruments are constructed to play in tune at an external temperature of 72 degrees Fahrenheit, at sea level, after a proper warm-up;
• Because the temperature of human breath is around 98.6, the breath gradually raises the temperature of the air inside a cold instrument, thus raising its pitch;
• Sound travels faster in warm air than in cold, because the air molecules are less densely packed together. This is the physical reason why wind instruments will sound flat when cold, and sharp when hot;
• Metal instruments warm up and cool down faster than instruments made of wood or plastic (flutes are the exception, as flutes do not tend to get much warmer because the performer is breathing across the mouth hole, not into the instrument itself, as with brass instruments); 
• Large instruments, such as the tuba, take longer to warm up than smaller instruments. For this reason, all wind players should warm up on their own at least five to ten minutes before tuning (chorales are great for this purpose in ensemble settings);
• During long rest passages, the internal instrument of your instrument can be maintained by softly and slowly blowing warm air through it. Flutes can keep their instrument warm by holding it close to the body or keeping hands on the instrument;
• Always be alert for environmental factors that may affect tuning (for example, a too-cold room, a warm, humid environment, heat from stage lights, etc.)

Psychological/Musical Phenomena

• While sound is a physical phenomenon (in the form of vibration), the interpretation of that sound by our brains is a completely psychological one, and is therefore subjective and can be manipulated in several ways;
• Octaves can often sound “stretched” to our ears: the higher octave will sometimes sound sharp, the lower octave will often sound flat. Both ends of the octave should always listen inward;
• Low tones played loudly tend to sound flat, while high tones played loudly tend to sound sharp;
• In general, humans tend to be more tolerant of sharpness than flatness in the middle and upper registers, and more tolerant of flatness than sharpness in the lower ranges.
• Playing with a tuner on your stand can be detrimental to the development of listening skills. Tuners should only be used to tune your overall instrument, not to attempt tuning every single note you play (especially when you are part of a chord). 

Pitch Tendencies of Instruments and Performers

• Generally speaking, inexperienced wind players tend to play high notes sharp (pinching and tension) and low notes flat (not enough air support);
• Brass players and flautists tend to go sharp in crescendo, while clarinetists and saxophonists tend to go flat (the reverse is true in decrescendo);
• Regardless of quality or brand, every instrument has certain notes that are inherently out of tune with the equal tempered scale. Finding these troublesome notes and working out a solution to the problem should be paramount to all conscientious wind players…for this reason, it is highly suggested that you create a tuning tendency chart for yourself once a year, or anytime you get a new instrument, mouthpiece, etc.;
• Most performers will continue to grow sharp the longer they play, until a point of fatigue is reached at which point the instrument will begin to grow flat due to embouchure issues. Be aware of this tendency and compensate!

THE TUNING PROCESS
With the exception of oboes and bassoons, wind instruments are manufactured to play sharp when the headpiece, tuning joints, or slides are closed/pushed in. Therefore, players must lengthen their instrument by pulling out the main tuning mechanism, whatever it is for that instrument. When tuning in an ensemble setting, the following basic procedures should be followed by all wind players:

• Warm up thoroughly before tuning to make sure your instrument is at equilibrium temperature with the environment.
• Tune to a reliable frequency, and use the basic tuning notes recommended for your instrument (usually F for brass instruments and clarinets, A for most other woodwind instruments). Please note that while B-flat is an ok tuning note, it does induce a small element of strain in brass players, and F is a better tuning note (which also allows the clarinet to tune its barrel joint). 
• Tune at a mezzo-forte dynamic level, and do not use vibrato. 
• Humming the tuning note softly to yourself allows you to focus and internalize the pitch much better than simply “attacking” the note.
• Do not try to “humour” the tuning note…play it straight. Adjust the main tuning mechanism if your instrument is flat or sharp, do not “lip” the note into place.
• Adjusting the tuning note with your embouchure (“lipping”) does not mean you are in tune…it just means you have fixed that one single pitch, and that you will have to keep fixing it every time you come back to it! 
• The first effort you make while tuning should be to find out how far out of tune you are, and then make the length adjustment. The second effort should be to fine-tune any minor deficiencies, and the third effort should be to verify. A good player can do all of this in a few seconds. 
• In addition to tuning the main tube length of the instrument, brass players should tune the length of each individual valve in relationship to the overall length. Neglecting to do so may cause intonation deficiencies with individual fingering combinations.
• Softly re-articulate the tuning note from time to time at random. This will allow you to “get back in touch” with your own sound, which may have become blended into the overall sound of the ensemble (which is a good thing!)
• As soon as you’ve tuned – stop playing. The tuning process is not intended to be a long one. Ideally, you will already be close enough when the tuning note is sounded that it should not take you very long to ascertain where you are in relation to it.
• Use your tuning slides to fix the overall intonation on your instrument, and use your embouchure only for correcting small deficiencies on the go. Players should practice lowering and raising pitches using this physical technique without grossly distorting the tone quality or dynamic level.

THE HARMONIC SERIES
The Harmonic Series is a naturally occurring (i.e., not man-made) acoustic and mathematical phenomenon that is the underlying foundation for the construction of sound on string, woodwind, and brass instruments. The series consists of frequencies (pitches) that are related to each other via whole number ratios of the lowest possible frequency, which is known as the fundamental. 

For example, if the fundamental was 10Hz, then 20Hz (2xF), 30Hz (3xF), 50Hz (5xF), and 100 Hz (10xF), would allbe harmonic frequencies of the fundamental. 55 Hz would not be a part of the harmonic series, because it is not a whole number ratio to the fundamental (5.5xF). 55Hz would, however, be a part of the harmonic series if  the fundamental were 11Hz.

These frequencies, known as harmonics, are possible because of complex vibrations. All freely vibrating bodies (such as a piano string or an air column) vibrate not just along their entire length, but also in halves, thirds, fourths, etc., theoretically onward into infinity. The smaller each segment of string (or air column) vibrates, the higher the frequency (pitch) produced above its fundamental, hence the name we often use synonymously with harmonics: overtones.

Many of these overtones are inaudible to the human ear (just as many of the secondary vibrations are invisible to the eye). The lower the note played, the more obvious the overtones to our ears. This is why low notes on the piano, for example, tend to have such a vibrant and rich quality (try it out next time you are in a practice room...strike the lowest keys on the piano and strive to listen for the audible harmonics, particularly the fifth and the third of the fundamental).

As we progress up the Harmonic Series, the intervals between overtones get smaller and smaller (and some are not even intervals that we use in Western music). Any sound we hear contains all the notes in its harmonic series to varying degrees. That variability is the reason that instruments playing the same pitch sound different: Their harmonics have different strengths. For example, an oboe playing A440 has a rich, reedy, spicy sound, while a clarinet playing the same note has a much less vibrant tone, simply because the clarinet’s construction suppresses some of the overtones (the 2nd, 4th, and 6th especially) that would make it stand out more.

No matter how many overtones are present and audible, our ears tend to resolve all harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving all of the individual harmonics of a musical tone, we perceive them together as one pitch (the lowest one, or fundamental). Incredibly, this will happen if we hear just a few tones from the harmonic series…even if the fundamental is not actually sounding! This phenomenon is used in music recording, especially in low bass tones that are to be reproduced on small speakers such as earbuds or other headphones, and it fools your brain completely into thinking that the lowest tone is there, when in fact it is not.

 Yet another name often applied to the phenomenon of the harmonic series is partials. This is especially the case when speaking of the harmonic series in relation to brass instruments. For all intents and purposes, the terms harmonics, overtones, and partials are all interchangeable in this document. For brass players, these partials are particularly important, as they are the foundation to playing chromatically. Here are the first sixteen partials of the harmonic series (keep in mind that these partials go on, theoretically, into infinity):

• Partial 1 is the Fundamental (in brass instruments, often called pedal tones).
• Partial 2 is one octave above the Fundamental.
• Partial 3 is a Perfect Fifth above Partial 2.
• Partial 4 is a Perfect Fourth above Partial 3.
• Partial 5 is a Major Third above Partial 4.
• Partial 6 is a minor Third above Partial 5.
• Partial 7 is a minor Third above Partial 6.
• Partial 8 is a Major Second above Partial 7.
• Partial 9 is a Major Second above Partial 8.
• Partial 10 is a Major Second above Partial 9.
• Partial 11 is a Major Second above Partial 10.
• Partial 12 is a minor Second above Partial 11.

• Partial 13 is a Major Second above Partial 12.
• Partial 14 is a Minor Second above Partial 13.
• Partial 15 is a Minor Second above Partial 14.
• Partial 16 is a Minor Second above Partial 15.

If you were paying attention, you may have noticed that the first six partials of the harmonic series make up a Major Chord. In fact, many historians and theoreticians believe that the reason our harmony tends to be so heavily reliant on fifths, fourths, and thirds (i.e., major and minor chords) is because those are the most audible harmonics to the human ear. (This does not, however, explain why Asian and Arabic cultures use different harmonic models since they too would be able to hear the same harmonics as Western Europeans during the development of music).

Here are some other tips/tricks that will help you learn harmonics/partials:

• Partials 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 are the Fundamental and its octaves. If the fundamental is B-flat, then the 2nd, 4th, 8th, and 16th, partials are also B-flat (and so is the 32nd, 64th, etc.)
• Partials 3, 6, and 12 are perfect fifths above the Fundamental (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 3rd, 6th, and 12th partial are F naturals (as are the 24th, 48th, etc.) – Note, the 3rd partial series is noticeably sharp on wind instruments.
• Partials 5 and 10 are Major thirds (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 5th and 10th partials are D naturals. So are the 20th, 40th, and 80th partials... Note- the 5th partial series is noticeably flat on wind instruments.
• Partial 7 is a minor seventh (plus octaves) above the fundamental. If the fundamental is B-flat, the 7th partial is an A-flat, and so is the 28th, 56th, etc. Note- the 7th partial series is extremely flat on wind instruments.
• 9 is a Major ninth (plus octaves). If the fundamental is B-flat, the 9th partial is a C, and so is the 18th, 36th, etc.
• Partial 11 is seldom used due to intonation deficiencies on most instruments. However, just for the sake of knowing it, it is a tri-tone plus an octave.
• If you “divide” a partial by two until it will no longer divide evenly, then you will really only have to learn Partials # 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.

So why is any of this important to you? Well, knowledge of the harmonic series is how fingerings on brass, woodwind, and stringed instruments are derived. This knowledge could help you devise alternate fingerings for a troublesome spot, or decide a different way to voice a chord so that it sounds better in tune. But really, it is important to know because it is what music is all about, and knowledge for the sake of knowledge is still important. Knowing what we know now, we can see that the pitch “G,” for example, can be:

• The 1st, 2nd, 4th, or 8th partial of the G series...
• The 3rd, 6th, or 12th partial of the C series...
• The 5th or 10th partial of the E-flat series...
• The 7th partial of the A series...
• The 9th partial of the F series...
• The 11th partial of the C-sharp series...

= = =

“Every bit of playing we do today, be it good, bad, or indifferent, goes toward deciding what sort of player we will be tomorrow. A player who begins his day with a load of thoughtless, shoddy flourishes is simply perfecting their faults. Time spent trying to do simple things well is like putting money in the bank. Use your warmup time to do simple things well.”
– John Fletcher
​

​PERFORMANCE ETIQUETTE
Always double check performance times, locations, and dress code. Plan to arrive early enough to warm up, and always give yourself extra time in case of traffic or other minor emergencies. If you are not familiar with the performance venue, plan to arrive significantly earlier in case you get lost or have trouble finding the location, an entrance, a working elevator, etc.

Adhere to the stated dress code for the performance. Appearance goes a long way toward defining your image as a professional. All apparel should be of a formal rather than casual nature unless “casual” is specifically called for. Jewelry should be understated and minimal, watches should not be worn. If you do not already own decent-quality performance wear, invest in some. 

Make sure your mobile device has been left backstage, and that you have turned it off or have it set to “Airplane Mode” . . . many a performance has been marred by a cell phone ringing backstage. Keep the rest of your non-musical accessories in your case, purse, or bag, not on your stand or on the floor by your feet, where they can be knocked over, or otherwise make unnecessary clutter.

As soon as you enter the stage, you are on display and in professional performance mode. Now is not the time to start playing high notes or fortissimo orchestral excerpts (especially if they are not on the concert that night). Do not practice your tough licks on stage over and over again right before the concert begins – you will just make yourself tense and fatigue your chops. Whenever possible, use practice mutes or buzz on your mouthpiece (within reason). Sometimes, a little mental run-through or a moment of meditation to acclimate to the stage is all that is needed.

Do not turn a page during silence, unless absolutely necessary. If you must, lift the corner of the page so that it does not scrape against the stand. Also avoid nervous repetitive actions: Looking at a reed, adjusting your seat/stand, instrument adjustments, fixing your hair, or other actions that draw attention to yourself. The audience notices these types of actions.

At the end of a piece, savor and take in the moment. Don’t be a gunslinger, eager to holster your weapon…take in the applause as a respectful acknowledgment of the audience. Do not immediately start fidgeting with the music, your instrument, or your stand. If the conductor is bowing, stay still but look at the audience in a way that makes it clear that you have enjoyed performing for them. If the conductor asks you to stand, do it quickly and turn your body towards the audience. Smile! Have a pleasant look on your face, no matter how the performance went.

As the conductor leaves the stage, quickly (but not too quickly), exchange your music for the next piece. If you are moving to a new position, do so gently. There is plenty of time to maneuver yourself, your instrument, and your music into place. The conductor will wait a reasonable interval.

Be aware of - and sensitive to - other ensemble members’ line-of-sight to the conductor, especially if the performance venue is different than your usual rehearsal venue. Do your best to be accommodating. As with notes and rhythms, be direct and friendly if you yourself need an accommodation.

Count the rests! If you have many bars of tacet, give a small hand or finger signal at all the important rehearsal letters, double bars, or the cues immediately before your next entrance. This allows all the players in the section to ensure they have the correct count. If you are not sure of the count, do not make a signal. With everyone counting carefully, no section should ever get lost. Please do not make your signals visible to an audience or even other sections, who may have different counts than you. And certainly don’t engage in games of one-upmanship in order to purposely confuse other musicians and their counts…this needlessly endangers the integrity of the music.

Every time you are in public, an impression is being crafted, whether for the good or for the bad. This applies both to the music you play and to the statements you make to your colleagues. Do not start complaining about anything until you have left the building. Even then, make sure you know your audience and that what you say will not offend them or someone they respect. More importantly, keep in mind that the things you say out loud (or via social media, email, etc.) can often be traced back to you.  

Before you ever open your mouth (or log into your social media account) to criticize someone, think to yourself “...and then what?” If nothing good can come from your complaint, it is most wisely kept to yourself. Always keep the following checklist in mind before you say anything about another person, especially a colleague, peer, or supervisor: Is it kind? Is it true? Is it necessary?

Finally – professionals not only demonstrate the above traits, but also expect and demand them from their peers and colleagues. Professionals understand that life is a series of “teachable” moments. How one approaches these moments will make a world of difference: Being rude or condescending in your demands for professionalism will accomplish nothing but resentment and anger. Expecting someone to know how to behave professionally without clear and concise explanations of why that is the desired standard will result in disappointment. If you can learn to clearly articulate the need for professionalism in an ensemble setting, it will be easier to educate those around you. We should always be striving to leave the world in a better state that we found it.

= = =

“Professionalism in Art has this difficulty: To be professional is to be dependable; to be dependable is to be predictable…and predictability is esthetically boring,  an anti-virtue in a field where we hope to be astonished and startled and at some deep level refreshed.”
– John Updike

Today, I realise how silly it must sound to others to be captivated by a work's title alone, without ever having heard the actual music. To my high school-aged self, however, these titles were compelling. Also compelling was the look of the engraving (even back then, I marveled at how different the layout could be from one publisher to another), the feel of the music, and most of all, the smell of it (particularly those very old Hindsley transcriptions that seem to make it into most older libraries). At one point, I had just about the entire FBA (Florida Bandmasters Association) Concert Music List memorized - something my former band director Neil Jenkins (a man who would later become my colleague, when I returned to teach at my alma mater) could attest to. Never mind the fact that I could not have hummed a single melody for most of these works.

Of course, as I progressed through my undergraduate degree at Florida State University, I was exposed to much of the music I had previously only known by title, thanks to Jim Croft, Pat Dunnigan, and Bentley Shellahamer, and the various ensembles they conducted. It was then that it began to dawn on me that a captivating title did not necessarily make for a captivating work...only the compositional craft of the composer could do that. I was no longer enthralled by a work's title alone...I now needed more for a piece of wind band music to stand out. I suppose it was one of the many lessons I learned along the way to becoming a wind band conductor.

When I returned to my alma mater to teach some years later, I took on the responsibility of going through the band library to re-organize it and catalog it, so that we would better know what we had, where it was, and how to access it quickly. It took me the better part of an academic year (we had quite a nice collection), and it prepared me for later re-organizations - especially the one I am going through right now. This being a blog about wind band music and its related aspects, I thought it made sense to discuss the place where we store the most important element that helps our wind bands "go," indeed, our life's blood, and our curriculum: The music itself.

In my experience, most band libraries (whether at the secondary or tertiary levels) look like one of these two pictures:

Perhaps one of these setups looks familiar to you? 

Mind you, I'm not here to "throw shade" at anyone who uses either system. After all, money is hard to come by in most programs, and the budget is better spent on instruments and new music, rather than new methods of storage. Time is also a limited resource for band directors, and that time is better spent teaching lessons, running rehearsals, and a myriad other responsibilities. Who has time to re-organize an entire band library? Well...YOU do.

Not all by yourself, of course, unless you've got a very small library. In my current re-organization, I have student volunteers from time to time, and I also use one hour of library time as a make-up assignment for excused absences in my ensembles. We have roughly 1200 works in our library, and though I started this project at the beginning of the spring, I am only up through 250 right now. It is a long process, but the benefits outweigh the drawbacks. 

By sorting, re-organizing, and re-cataloguing the library, I am able to do several things, all of which I feel are important (and some of which may be appealing to you as well):

• I am able to figure out which pieces of music are missing (and in some cases have been missing for many years)...I can now either remove them from the database, purchase replacements, or try to find out who they were loaned to. 
• I am able to find duplicate sets. In some cases, someone in the past purchased a new set without awareness that we already owned one. These duplicate sets can be sold (always check with your administration and GET PERMISSION to do so first), or given away, or simply incorporated into one large set.
• I am able to figure out which sets are missing scores, or an oboe part, or a tuba part, etc. This saves me frustration later when selecting music for a program, only to discover that I am missing all the horns and cannot perform the work.
• I am able to use software (I use FileMaker Pro) to keep track of performances, who the music is checked out to, difficulty level, and can even keep information for future performances, like program notes.

The following is what a typical entry in my FileMaker Pro database looks like as of 2023 (note: this software is HIGHLY customizable, hence my specific tabs...you may find similar software useful, or even just use Microsoft Excel).

As you can see, I am able to keep track of a great variety of information. When I am finished, I will also be able to see when a piece of music was last performed, what parts are missing, publisher information (in case I need to order more parts or a score), and much more. The keywords I enter now will allow me to program a concert around a theme, if so desired. Program notes can also be stored here for the next time a work is performed (or even in anticipation, if you find notes for the work on the WRP).

FileMaker Pro will also print out a numbered list, as well as a list by title, and by composer...really, any type of list you feel would be helpful as a hard copy. We keep this hard copy list in the library itself, so that someone can simply browse the list instead of having to go directly into the software (and we have a student librarian who will then "check out" the piece to the corresponding faculty member).

For me, this re-cataloguing is only one part of the process, however...and here is where I will reveal my deep loathing of those ubiquitous white music storage boxes. Again, I am not criticizing those of you who prefer them; we all have valid reasons for our preferences. But, they just do not work for me, for a variety of reasons that I feel merit some thought:

• A lot of wind band music will not fit correctly in the boxes (which can cause damage to the music). I almost wept when I opened up a box to find the very large parts for Strauss' Suite in B-flat, Op. 4, folded in half to fit into one of these boxes. Oh, the humanity!
• The boxes are all one size, and fairly inflexible. You can easily end up with a box that is overflowing or packed to the gills with music, while the box next to it is barely full because the set is so small:

​So...now that I am done complaining...you may be asking, "what do YOU use, then?" Well, what I like is a system of filing cabinets (ubiquitous at most academic institutions) with top-loading folders (for easy access). As far as I am aware, only one company is currently making the large top-loading folders (please let me know if there are others), while most other companies make side-loading folders (which are not great in file cabinets - top-loading allows you to easily take a look at the music, side-loading means that you'd have to take the entire folder out, which adds to the wear-and-tear). These particular folders are pretty sturdy, they are not just cheap paper, but rather something more akin to card stock (though not as thick). I highly recommend them.

I then print out labels for each work (this can be automated in FileMaker or Excel, by the way), using Shipping Labels (Avery 5163), and the result is a much neater, much more accessible way of storing music. It also ends up taking less space than the boxes, so if space is at a premium for you, you may want to investigate. What if a score is too large for the envelope? No worries - I print out a little reminder to myself (or whoever might be looking for it) that the score is being kept in the OVERSIZE area (I also put a note in the database).

Incidentally, if you are interested in a blank copy of the FileMaker Pro file that I use (which you can then format and customize as you see fit), please contact me and I'll be happy to send one along.

Probably the best "side-effect" of a library re-organization is the discovery of works and composers I was not previously aware of. It really gives one a sense of how much music was being churned out by myriad composers that did not stand the test of time. Names like Joseph Olivadotti, Harold Walters (he of Instant Concert fame), George Thaddeus Jones, and Carl Frangkiser are ever-present...it wasn't all Persichetti, Holst, Dello Joio, or Grainger back then. Also, Frank Erickson wrote approximately one billion pieces for wind band, though only the 2-3 we know today have survived the filter of time. Publishers like Bourne and Belwin and Robbins and Rubank seemed to dominate publishing in the 40s and 50s, though familiar names such as Boosey & Hawkes and Carl Fischer were active back then as well. Also interesting are the wind band conventions from the infancy of our genre, such as condensed scores, D-flat piccolos, E-flat horns, and the stubborn practice of calling an E-flat Contra Alto Clarinet an "E-flat ContraBASS Clarinet."

The moral of the story is - if your library is in need of an extreme makeover, you'll find that you'll learn quite a bit about long-term trends in the wind band world in addition to tidying up and making your operation run smoother. You will come to better understand the ephemeral nature of musical trends and the cyclical nature of our craft. 

And you just might find that missing Bassoon 1 part for the Persichetti Symphony buried in the parts for the Gould Symphony  (and there was much rejoicing)!